Dr. Fergus describes the root cause analysis as essential process in addressing disproportionality. In this article he lists three common root causes that have emerged from his research and work with many local education agencies.
Fergus, Edward. 2022. Remedies for Disproportionality: It’s Time for a Root Cause Analysis. Catapult Learning, https://catapultlearning.com/2022/08/02/remedies-for-disproportionality-its-time-for-a-root-cause-analysis/ (accessed January 30, 2023).
This controversial research article argues that the research does not provide empirical evidence of overrepresentation in special education of students of ethnic minorities. Instead it argues that minority children are underidentified for special education.
Morgan, Paul, George Farkas, Marianne Hillemeier, and Steve Maczuga. 2017. “Replicated Evidence of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Disability Identification in U.S. Schools.” Educational Researcher 46 (6): 305–322.
Students of color, English learners, and those from non-dominant cultures often face disproportionate identification and placement in special education, along with related disciplinary disparities. While special education services are crucial for students with actual disabilities, many students are wrongly referred to special education due to struggles stemming from inadequate education policies and classroom practices that fail to meet their needs. Pedagogical practices based on the dominant culture often lack culturally responsive elements, leading to classrooms that do not reflect or value the sociocultural contexts of these students. This disconnect can impede learning and result in teachers mistakenly perceiving these students as having learning or behavioral issues, prompting inappropriate special education referrals.
This brief suggests that district leaders tackle this critical issue by focusing on four key areas:
Implementing culturally responsive and sustaining policies and practices across all educational settings.
Enhancing the special education identification process.
Integrating culturally responsive and sustaining policies and practices specifically in behavior management efforts.
Developing culturally responsive data literacy among district staff at all levels.
Citation: Harvey, A. 2023. “Research-Based Strategies for Addressing Disproportionality in Special Education.” Western Educational Equity Assistance Center at WestEd. https://weeac.wested.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Addressing-Disproportionality-in-Special-Education.pdf (accessed, June 14, 2024).
This updated research review examines restorative justice as an alternative to traditional responses to student misbehavior in schools across the United States.
Fronius, Trevor, Sean Darling-Hammond, Hannah Persson, Sarah Guckenburg, Nancy Hurley, and Anthony Petrosino. 2019. Restorative Justice in U.S. Schools: An Updated Research Review. WestEd Justice and Prevention Research Center.
This technical commentary argues that Morgan et al.’s claim that there is no minority overrepresentation in special education is an error due to (a) sampling considerations, (b) inadequate support from previous and current analyses, and (c) the authors’ failure to consider the complexities of special education disproportionality.
Skiba, Russel, Alfreda J. Artiles, Elizabeth B. Kozleski, Daniel J. Losen, and Elizabeth G. Harry. 2016. “Risks and Consequences of Oversimplifying Educational Inequities: A Response to Morgan et al. (2015).” Educational Researcher 45 (3): 221–225.
This report reviews 79 California school districts with a focus on how they managed school closures and the quality of education that English Learners received. Six key indicators were identified: 1. Designated and Integrated English Language Development (ELD) 2.Live Interactive Instruction 3.Bridging the Digital Divide A PowerPoint is included with the article 4. Family Collaboration 5. Social-Emotional Support Early Child Education (ECE).
Williams, Dr., C.P. 2020. School Closure And English Learners: A Review of COVID-19 Operations Written Reports. Long Beach, California: Californians Together. https://www.californianstogether.org/school-closure-and-english-learners/
This research study examines how American Indian students are disproportionately represented in school discipline referrals and administrative outcomes across general school populations.This research study examines how American Indian students are disproportionately represented in school discipline referrals and administrative outcomes across general school populations.
Whitford, Denise K. 2017. “School Discipline Disproportionality: American Indian Students in Special Education.” The Urban Review 49 (5): 693–706.
This report on the school-to-prison pipeline examines root causes of school and societal failure for certain groups and offers resolutions and strategies for addressing inequities.
ABA Joint Task Force on Reversing the School to Prison Pipeline. 2018. School-to-Prison Pipeline: Report, Recommendations and Preliminary Report. https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/images/racial_ethnic_justice/Final%20School2PrisonPipeline-2nd-012618.pdf
Due to bias within the education system (including within assessments and academic and other policies), students of color can be misidentified as needing special education, and are then placed in more restrictive settings and experience harsher discipline because of the intersectionality of race and special education. This brief summarizes the literature and latest research on disproportionality in special education and offers changes in policy and practice that can reduce significant disproportionality in schools.
Citation: National Center for Learning Disabilities. 2023. Significant Disproportionality in Special Education: Current Trends and Actions for Impact. Washington, DC: National Center for Learning Disabilities.
This research article provides a brief overview of special education policy within the context of changing student demographics, with a focus on disproportionate identification for special education and inappropriate educational placement for diverse students. The article additionally provides an overview of the Response to Intervention (RTI) model.
Castro-Villarreal, Felicia, Victor Villarreal, and Jeremy R. Sullivan. 2016. “Special Education Policy and Response to Intervention: Identifying Promises and Pitfalls to Advance Social Justice for Diverse Students.” Contemporary School Psychology 20 (1): 10–20.
