In this article, the authors propose that pervasive negative stereotypes about racially stigmatized children influence both teachers and students, undermining teacher–student relationships over time.
Okonofua, J. A., Walton, G. M., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2016). A Vicious Cycle: A Social–Psychological Account of Extreme Racial Disparities in School Discipline. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(3) 381–398.
This document highlights national data regarding the number of students with disabilities that are receiving a free and appropriate public education (FAPE). The data are disaggregated by gender, location of education, English language proficiency, type of disability, disciplinary removals, and by state.
Office of Special Education Programs. 2022. OSEP Fast Facts: Educational Environments of Children with Disabilities, Ages 5 (in kindergarten) through 21, Served under IDEA Part B https://sites.ed.gov/idea/osep-fast-facts-school-aged-children-5-21-served-under-idea-part-b-21/ (accessed September 16, 2022).
High rates of discipline citations predict adverse life outcomes, a harm disproportionately borne by Black and Latino boys. The authors hypothesized that these citations arise in part from negative cycles of interaction between students and teachers, which unfold in contexts of social stereotypes.
Goyer, J. P., Cohen, G. L., Cook, J. E., Master, A., Apfel, N., Lee, W., Henderson, A. G., Reeves, S. L., Okonofua, J. A., & Walton, G. M. (2019). Targeted Identity-Safety Interventions Cause Lasting Reductions in Discipline Citations Among Negatively Stereotyped Boys. American Psychological Association, 117(2) 229-259.
Greater proportions of ethnoracially matched teachers decreases the likelihood of suspension for Black, Latinx, and Asian American students. The magnitudes of these effects are small but suggest that diversifying the teacher workforce could lead to significant decreases in exclusionary discipline in urban districts.
Shirrell, M., Bristol, T.J., & Britton, T.A. "The Effects of Student-Teacher Ethnoracial Matching on Exclusionary Discipline for Asian American, Black, and Latinx Students: Evidence From New York City." EdWorkingPaper, 21-475, (2021).
There are large racial disparities in school discipline in the United States, which, for Black students, not only contribute to school failure but also can lay a path toward incarceration. Although the disparities have been well documented, the psychological mechanisms underlying them are unclear. The authors argue that race not only can influence how perceivers interpret a specific behavior, but also can enhance perceivers’ detection of behavioral patterns across time.
Okonofua, J. A., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2015). Two Strikes: Race and the Disciplining of Young Students. Psychological Science, 26(5) 617–624.
This article discusses the reform efforts of California school districts to reduce the suspension rate of students of color, especially African American Students. Suspension data from 2018-19 is broken down by race and ethnicity. Restorative Justice Programs are discussed as successful programs to reduce suspensions. Use of LCAP funds to develop programs and increase staff to support students is outlined.
Jones, Carolyn. 2020. Years of reform efforts contribute to declining African-American suspension rates in California. Oakland, California: EdSource.
https://edsource.org/2020/african-american-suspension-rate-drops-in-california-after-years-of-reform-efforts/621970
