This analysis illustrates progress that has been made in reducing suspension rates based on improved use of positive behavioral interventions and the introduction of culturally responsive instruction. Although causation was not indicated, the authors found lower district suspension rates to correlate with higher student achievement. The inverse relationship between suspensions and achievement held true throughout the study for all racial and ethnic subgroups and proved particularly true for Black students.
Losen, Daniel J., Keith, Michael A., Hodson, Cheri L., Martinez, Tia E., Belway, Shakti. Closing the School Discipline Gap in California: Signs of Progress. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED561400 (accessed April 17, 2018).
The author offers an overview of the impact of suspensions on students with disabilities, particulaly African American students and male students.
Williams, V. C. (2023). Department of Education Calls on Schools to Limit Suspensions of Students with Disabilities. Exceptional Parent, 53(2), 8–9.
Losen and his colleagues at the Civil Rights Project at UCLA provide readers with an analysis of current national and statewide data on continuing disparities in rates of punitive discipline for students with Individual Education Programs (IEPs) based on race and ethnicity. Their recommendations define the critical changes needed to eliminate the inequities as part of a pathway to reformation.
Losen, Daniel J. 2018. “Disabling Punishment: The Need for Remedies to the Disparate Loss of Instruction Experienced by Black Students with Disabilities.” Los Angeles and Houston: The Center for Civil Rights Remedies at the Civil Rights Project Proyecto Derechos Civiles and Charles Hamilton Houston Institute for Race and Justice.
Recognizing that suspension is an ineffective disciplinary technique, the Hannigans introduce alternative discipline in the context of structured and consistent positive behavioral and academic environments.
Hannigan, Jessica Djabrayan, and Hannigan, John. E. 2017. Don′t Suspend Me!: An Alternative Discipline Toolkit. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Preeminent authors in the field of equitable education, Gregors, Skiba, and Mediratta provide practitioners with a ten-point framework to reduce race and gender disparity in school discipline.
Gregory, Anne, Skiba, Russell J., and Mediratta, Kavitha. 2017. “Eliminating Disparities in School Discipline: A Framework for Intervention.” Review of Research in Education 41: 253-278.
This paper provides readers with clear, current data on widespread inequity in discipline as it pertains to African American males in California’s schools.
Wood, J. Luke, Harris III, Frank , Howard, Tyrone C.. 2018. “Get Out! Black Male Suspensions in California Public Schools.” San Diego, CA. Community College Equity Assessment Lab and the UCLA Black Male Institute.
Maynard and Weinstein use this text to encourage educators to create school cultures that rely on relationships, empathy, communication and restoration in place of punishment and exclusion.
Maynard, Nathan, and Weinstein, Brad. 2019. Hacking School Discipline: 9 Ways to Create a Culture of Empathy and Responsibility Using Restorative Justice. Highland Heights, OH: Times 10 Publications.
Infusing Restorative Approaches to Discipline in Schools: Indicators of Success and High Quality Implementation was presented by Dr. Anne Gregory on June 16, 2015. This webinar is presented to you via the State Performance Plan Technical Assistance Project (SPPTAP) and the Napa County Office of Education with funding from the California Department of Education.
Gregory, Anne. 2015. "Infusing Restorative Approaches to Discipline in Schools: Indicators of Success and High Quality Implementation." State Performance Plan Technical Assistance Project.
The authors hypothesized that high rates of discipline citations for students of color are the product of a toxic socialrelational cycle between students and teachers. At the heart of this cycle are harmful stereotypes that allege that black and Latino boys are “troublemakers.” That stereotype can lead teachers to perceive and respond to students more harshly.
Goyer, J. P., Cohen, G. L., Cook, J. E., Master, A., Apfel, N., Lee, W., Henderson, A.G., Reeves, S.L., Okonofua, J.A., Walton, G. M. (2019). Interventions Designed to Foster a Sense of Belonging, Identity Affirmation, and Growth Mindset Improve Long-Term Discipline Outcomes for Negatively Stereotyped Boys. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Commissioned for researchers to investigate the patterns of student discipline found in public schools throughout the country, this study reveals marked differences in student discipline practices based on race, gender, and disability status. Using Civil Rights Data Collection data, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) examined a range of disciplinary actions disaggregated by student group. Practitioners may wish to use information from this study to analyze identified root causes of discipline disparity and consider evidence-based practices that succeed as alternatives to punitive and exclusionary discipline.
U.S. Government Accountability Office (U.S. GAO). 2018. K-12 Education: Discipline Disparities for Black Students, Boys, and Students with Disabilities. https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-18-258 (accessed April 6, 2018).
